All of that only works within a domain, because it relies on computers in the domain being able to trust each other and/or trust a central (Kerberos) server. Without a domain environment, there really is nothing the server could trust, other than an actual user name and password. In fact, solving this particular issue was the main motivation for creating domains in the first place.
You may have one other option, although it's far too complicated for my taste: you can set up a Kerberos server. Windows can use that for authentication even without a domain.
It sounds like none of this would be an option. Here is another way to do that "the chef way".
You could manually copy the files you need to the file directory in your cookbook. Instead of fetching the file from the UNC server, it would come from Chef itself. Drawback is that you have an updating nightmare.
The other option would be to use a script resource to copy the file over and provide the password.
The third option is to use a wrapper script that authenticates to the UNC share, maybe even mounts it with a drive letter, and then calls chef-client.
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